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Publicado:
ago 3, 2022
ago 3, 2022
Palabras clave:
Carnitina, Suplementación, Salud.
Resumen
El objetivo de la presente revisión, fue describir los efectos y mecanismos de acción de la carnitina, tanto en personas con necesidades especiales
y susceptibles a carencia de carnitina, como en atletas y no atletas. Considerando que la L-carnitina, como amina cuaternaria, tiene como función principal la generación de energía por la célula, pues actúa en las reacciones de transferencia de ácidos grasos libres, facilitando la oxidación y generación de energía; y su suplementación puede mejorar diversas condiciones clínicas, elevar el rendimiento deportivo, así como la calidad y
expectativa de vida.
Cómo citar
Gómez-Campos, R. (2022). La carnitina como suplemento nutricional. Revista Educación Física Chile, (268). Recuperado a partir de http://revistas.umce.cl/index.php/refc/article/view/2117
Citas
Ahamad, S. L-carnitine in Dialysis patients. Semindial; 14(3): 209-17, 2001.
Arenas, J.; Huertas, R.; Campos, Y.; Diaz, A.E.; Villalón, J.M.; Vilas, E. Effects of L-carnitine on the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and carnitine almitoyl transferase activities in muscle of endurance athletes. FEBS Lett; 341:91-3, 1994.
Bacural, RFP.; Navarro, F.; Bassit, RA.; Meneguello, MA.; Santos, VT.; Almeida, ALR.; Rosa, LFBPC. Does exercise training interfere with the effects of L-carnitine supplementation. Nutrition;19:337-341, 2003.
Barnett C.; Costill DL.; Vukovich MD. et al. Effect of L-carnitine supplementation on muscle and blood carnitine content and lactate accumulation uring high-intensity sprint cycling. Int J Sports Nutr;4:280–8, 1994.
Bellinghieri, G.; Savica, V.; Mallamace, A., Di Stefano, C.; Consolo, F.; Spagnoli, LG. et al. Correlation between increased serum and tissue L-carnitine levels and improved muscle symptoms in hemodialyzed patients. Am Jclin Nutr; 38(4):523-31, 1983.
Biesek, Simone, et al. Estratégias de nutrição e suplementação alimentar no esporte. São Paulo: Manole, 2005.
Borghi, Silva, A.; Costa, D.; Baldissera, V.; Cardello, L.; Demonte, A. Correlações entre os níveis de L-carnitina plasmática, o estado nutricional e a função ventilatoria de portadores de doença pulmonar obstructiva crônica. Ver. Nutr., Campinas, 18(3);349-356, 2005.
Brass, E.P.; Supplemental carnitine and exercise. Am J. Clin Nutr; 72(2 supple):618-23, 2000.
Brass, E.P; Hiatt, W.R. the role of carnitine supplementation during exercise in man and in individuals with special need. J. Am Coll Nutr; 17: 207-215, 1998.
Brass, EP.; Adler, S.; Sietsema, KE.; Hiatt, WR., Orlando AM.; Amato, A. Intravenous L-carnitine increases plasma carnitine, reduces fatigue and may reserve exercise capacity in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney dis; 37(5): 1018-28, 2001.
Brevetti, G.; Chiariello, M.; Ferulano, G.; Polocicchio, A.; Nevola, E.; Rossini, A., et al. Increases in walking distance in patients with peripheral vascular isease treated with Lcarnitine: a doublé blind, cross-over study. Circulation; 77(4)767—73, 1988.
Brouns, F. Van der Vusse, GJ. Utilization of lipids during exercise in human subjects: metabolic and dietary constraints. Br J Nutr; 79: 117-28, 1998.
Carter, A.L.; Abney, P.O.; Lapp, F.D. Byosintesis and metabolism of carnitine. J. Child. Neurol: 10:253-257, 1995.
Clanton, T.L. Hypoxia-induced reactive oxygen species formation in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 102, 2379-2388, 2007.
Clarkson, P.M. Nutrition for improved sports performance. Sports med 1996; 21: 393-401.
Coelho, C.; Mota. J.; Bragança, E.; Burini, R. Aplicações clínicas da suplementação de Lcarnitina. Ver. Nutr., Campinas, 18(5):651-659, 2005.
Colombani, P.; Wenk, C.; Kunz, I. et al. Effects of L-carnitine supplementation on physical performance and energy metabolism of endurance-trained thletes: a double-blind crossover field study. Eur J Appl Physiol;73:434–9, 1996.
Corral, MAR.; Vázquez, JMV.; Silva, CH.; Martin, AA.; Madaria, E.Z. Miopatía por déficit de carnitina: un caso de diagnóstico tardío. Anales de medicina Interna; 2001.
Champe, P.C,; Harvey, R.A. Fat acid and triacilglycerol metabolism. En: Biochemestry. 2nd rev. New jersey; Lippincott-Raven: 171-190, 1994.
Clarkson, P.M. Nutrition for improved sports perfomance. Sports med; 21:393-401, 1996.
Dantas, Estelio H.M. A pratica da preparação física. 5 ed, Rio de Janeiro: Shape, 2003.
Décombaz, J.E.; Reffet, B.; Bloemhard, Y. Effect of L-carnitine and stimulated lipolysis on muscle substrates in the exercising rat. Experientia 1990; 46:457-458, 1990.
Decombaz, J.; Deriaz, O.; Acheson, K.; Gmuender, B.; Jequier, E. Effect of L-carnitine on submaximal exercise metabolism after depletion of muscle glycogen. Med Sci Sports Exerc;25:733–40, 1993.
Delvin, M.T. Text Book of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlation, ed. John Wiley & sons –1997 – 4a edição.
Dragan, GI.; Vasiliu, A.; Georgescu, E.; Dumas, I. Studies concerning chronic and acute effects of L-carnitine on some biological parameters in elite athletes. Physiologi;24:23–8, 1987.
Ellis, B.A.; Poynten, A.; Lowy, A.J.; S.M.; Kraegen, E.W.; Cooney, G.J. Long-chain acyl-CoA esters as indicators of lipids metabolism and insulin sensitivy in rat and human muscle. Am J. Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279:E554-E560, 2000.
Fritz, I.B. The effects of muscle extracts on the oxidation of palmitic acid by liver slices and homogenates. Acta Physiol Scand 34:367-385, 1995.
Gomes, MR.; Tirapegui, J. Relação de alguns suplementos nutricionais e o desempheno físico. Arch latinoam Nutri; 50: 317-329, 2000.
Guarnieri, G.; Situlin, R.; Biolo, G. Carnitine metabolism in uremia. Am J Kidney Dis.2001; 38(4 suplle 1); S63-7
Glacé, B. Carnitine as an ergogenic aid in health and disease. J. Am coll Nutr; 17:203-204, 1998.
Gorostiaga, EM.; Maurer, CA.; Eclache, JP. Decrease in respiratory quotient during exercise following L-carnitine supplementation. Int J Sports Med;10:169–74, 1989.
Greig, C.; Finch, KM.; Jones DA.; Cooper, M.; Sargeant, AJ.; Forte, CA. The effect of oral supplementation with L-carnitine on maximum and submaximum exercise capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol;56:457–60, 1987.
Hiatt, WR.; Regensteiner, JG.; Wolfel, EE.; Ruff, L.; Brass, EP. Carnitine and acylcarnitine metabolism during exercise in humans. Dependence on skeletal muscle metabolis state. J clin Invest; 84:1167-73, 1989.
Heinonen, O.J. Carnitine and physical exercisse. Sport med; 22(2): 109-32, 1996.
Hangerman, FC.; Energy metabolism and fuel utilization. Méd Sci Sports Exerc; 24:S309-14, 1992.
Hood, D.A.; Terjung, R.L. Amino acid metabolism during exercise and following endurance training. Sports Medicine, v.9, p.23-35, 1990.
____. Effect of endurance training on leucine metabolism in perfused rat skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology, v.253, p.E648-56, 1987.
Jones, NL.; Heigenhauser, GJ.; Kuksis, A.; Matsos, CG.; Sutton, JR.; Toews, CJ. Fat metabolism in heavy exercise. Clin sci; 59:469-78, 1980.
Jesus, E.V.; Silva, M. Suplemento alimentar como recurso ergogénico por praticantes de musculação em academias. Anais do II Encontro de Educação Física (NEPEF), 2008.
Lancha Jr, AH.; Recco, MB.; Abdalla, DSP.; Curi, R. Effects of aspartate, asparagine and carnitine supplementation in the diet on metabolims of skeletal muscle during a moderate exercise. Physiol Behav; 57(2):367-371, 1995.
Lagioia, R.; Scrutinio, D.; Mangini, SG.; Ricci, A.; Mastropasqua, F.; Valentini, G. et al., Propionyl-L-carnitine: a new compound in the metabolic pproach to the treatment of effort angina. Int J Cardiol; 34(2):167-72, 1992.
Lemon, P.W.R.; Proctor, D.N. Protein intake and athletic performance. Sports Medicine, v.12, p.313-25, 1991.
Marconi, C.; Sessi G.; Carpinelli, A.; Cerretelli, P. Effects of L-carnitine loading on the aerobic and anaerobic performance of endurance athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol;54:131–5, 1985.
Maughan, R.; Gleeson, M.; Greenhaff, P.L. Metabolismo de proteínas, aminoácidos y moléculas relacionadas. En: Maughan, R.; Gleeson, M. & Greenhaff, P.L., editores. Bioquímica do exercício e do treinamento. 1ª edição brasilera. São Paulo: editora Manole; 2000. p.116-139.
Monharaj, P.; Merola, A.J.; Wright, V.P. & Clanton, T.L. (1998). Antioxidants protect rat diaphragmatic muscle function under hypoxic conditions. J. Appl Physiol 84, 1960-1966,
Natali, A; Santoro, D; Brandi, LS. et al. Effects of acute hypercarnitinemia during increased fatty substrate oxidation in man. Metabolism; 42:594–600, 1993.
Newsholme, E.A.; Leech, AR. Biochemistry for the medical sciences. New York, John Willey, 1988.
Oyono-Enguelle, S.; Freund, H.; Ott, C. et al. Prolonged submaximal exercise and L-carnitine in humans. Eur J Appl Physio; 58:53–61, 1988.
Rebouche, C.J.; Seim, H. Carnitine metabolism and its regulation in microorganisms and mammals. Annu rev Nutr 18:39-61, 1998.
Redá, E.; Iddio, S.D.; Nicolai, P.; Benatti, P.; Calvani, M. The carnitine system and body composition. Acta Diabetol; 40:S106-S113, 2003.
Romijn, JÁ.; Coyle, EF.; Sidossis, LS.; Zhang, XJ.; Wolfe, RR. Relationship between fatty acid delivery and fatty acid oxidation during strenous exercise. J. Appl Physiol; 79:1939-45,1995.
Ramsay, R.P.; Arduni, A. The carnitina acyltransferases and their role in modulating acyl-CoA polls. Arch. Biochem. Biophys; 302:307-314,1993.
Reid, M.B. Redox modulation of skeletal muscle contractions: what we know and what we don’t. J Appl Physiol 90, 724-731, 2001.
Sahlin, K. Muscle carnitine metabolism during incremental dynamic exercise in humans. Acta Physiol scand; 138:259-62, 1990.
Sartori, C.; Minozzo, F.; Bargieri, J. Suplementação de aminoácidos e derivados protéicos no exercício. Centros de estudos de fisiologia do exercício, 2007.
Siliprandi, N.; Di Lisa, F.; Pieralisi, G. et al. Metabolic changes induced by maximal exercise in human subjects following L-carnitine administration. Biochim Biophys Acta; 1034:17–21, 1990.
Simoneau, J.A.; Veerkamp, J.H.; Turcotte, L.P.; Kelley, D.E. Markers of capacity to utilize fatty acids in human skeletal muscle: relation to insulin resistance and obesity and effects of weight loss. FASEB J 13:2051-2060, 1999.
Soop, M.; Bjorkman, O.; Cederblad, G.; Hagenfeldt, L.; Wahren J. Influence of carnitine supplementation on muscle substrate and carnitine metabolism during exercise. J Appl Physiol; 64:2394–9, 1988.
Spagnoli, L.G.; Palmieri, G.; Mauriello, A.; Vacha, GM.; Diddio, S.; Giorcelli, G. et al. Morphometric evidence of the trophic effect of L-carnitine on human skeletal muscle. Nephron; 55(1):16-23, 1990.
Trappe, SW.; Costill, DL.; Goodpaster, B.; Vukovich, MD.; Fink, WJ. The effects of Lcarnitine supplementation on performance during interval swimming. Int J Sports Med; 15:181–5, 1994.
Vecchiet, L.; Di Lisa, F.; Pieralisi, G. et al. Influence of L-carnitine administration on maximal physical exercise. Eur J Appl Physio; 61:486–90, 1990.
Volek, J.S.; Kraemer, W.J.; Rubin, M.R.; Gómez, A.L.; Ratamess, N.A.; Gaynor, P. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282:E474, 2002.
Vukovich, MD.; Costill, DL.; Fink, WJ. Carnitine supplementation: effect on muscle carnitine and glycogen content during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc; 26:1122–9, 1994.
Wasserman, K.; Whipp, B.J. Exercise physiology in health and disease. Am rev Respir Dis;112:219-49, 1975.
Westerbland, H. & Allen, D.G. (2000). Cellular mechanics of skeletal muscle fatigue. Adv Exp Med Biol 538, 563-570.
Wright, V.P.; Klawitter, P.F.; Iscru, D.F.; Merola, A.J. & Clanton, T.L. Superoxide scavengers augment contractile but not energetic responses to hypoxia in rat diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 98, 1753-1760, 2005.
Wyss, V.; Ganzit, GP.; Rienzi, A. Effects of Lcarnitine administration on VO2max and the aerobic-anaerobic threshold in normoxia and acute hypoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol;60:1–6,1990.
Arenas, J.; Huertas, R.; Campos, Y.; Diaz, A.E.; Villalón, J.M.; Vilas, E. Effects of L-carnitine on the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and carnitine almitoyl transferase activities in muscle of endurance athletes. FEBS Lett; 341:91-3, 1994.
Bacural, RFP.; Navarro, F.; Bassit, RA.; Meneguello, MA.; Santos, VT.; Almeida, ALR.; Rosa, LFBPC. Does exercise training interfere with the effects of L-carnitine supplementation. Nutrition;19:337-341, 2003.
Barnett C.; Costill DL.; Vukovich MD. et al. Effect of L-carnitine supplementation on muscle and blood carnitine content and lactate accumulation uring high-intensity sprint cycling. Int J Sports Nutr;4:280–8, 1994.
Bellinghieri, G.; Savica, V.; Mallamace, A., Di Stefano, C.; Consolo, F.; Spagnoli, LG. et al. Correlation between increased serum and tissue L-carnitine levels and improved muscle symptoms in hemodialyzed patients. Am Jclin Nutr; 38(4):523-31, 1983.
Biesek, Simone, et al. Estratégias de nutrição e suplementação alimentar no esporte. São Paulo: Manole, 2005.
Borghi, Silva, A.; Costa, D.; Baldissera, V.; Cardello, L.; Demonte, A. Correlações entre os níveis de L-carnitina plasmática, o estado nutricional e a função ventilatoria de portadores de doença pulmonar obstructiva crônica. Ver. Nutr., Campinas, 18(3);349-356, 2005.
Brass, E.P.; Supplemental carnitine and exercise. Am J. Clin Nutr; 72(2 supple):618-23, 2000.
Brass, E.P; Hiatt, W.R. the role of carnitine supplementation during exercise in man and in individuals with special need. J. Am Coll Nutr; 17: 207-215, 1998.
Brass, EP.; Adler, S.; Sietsema, KE.; Hiatt, WR., Orlando AM.; Amato, A. Intravenous L-carnitine increases plasma carnitine, reduces fatigue and may reserve exercise capacity in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney dis; 37(5): 1018-28, 2001.
Brevetti, G.; Chiariello, M.; Ferulano, G.; Polocicchio, A.; Nevola, E.; Rossini, A., et al. Increases in walking distance in patients with peripheral vascular isease treated with Lcarnitine: a doublé blind, cross-over study. Circulation; 77(4)767—73, 1988.
Brouns, F. Van der Vusse, GJ. Utilization of lipids during exercise in human subjects: metabolic and dietary constraints. Br J Nutr; 79: 117-28, 1998.
Carter, A.L.; Abney, P.O.; Lapp, F.D. Byosintesis and metabolism of carnitine. J. Child. Neurol: 10:253-257, 1995.
Clanton, T.L. Hypoxia-induced reactive oxygen species formation in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 102, 2379-2388, 2007.
Clarkson, P.M. Nutrition for improved sports performance. Sports med 1996; 21: 393-401.
Coelho, C.; Mota. J.; Bragança, E.; Burini, R. Aplicações clínicas da suplementação de Lcarnitina. Ver. Nutr., Campinas, 18(5):651-659, 2005.
Colombani, P.; Wenk, C.; Kunz, I. et al. Effects of L-carnitine supplementation on physical performance and energy metabolism of endurance-trained thletes: a double-blind crossover field study. Eur J Appl Physiol;73:434–9, 1996.
Corral, MAR.; Vázquez, JMV.; Silva, CH.; Martin, AA.; Madaria, E.Z. Miopatía por déficit de carnitina: un caso de diagnóstico tardío. Anales de medicina Interna; 2001.
Champe, P.C,; Harvey, R.A. Fat acid and triacilglycerol metabolism. En: Biochemestry. 2nd rev. New jersey; Lippincott-Raven: 171-190, 1994.
Clarkson, P.M. Nutrition for improved sports perfomance. Sports med; 21:393-401, 1996.
Dantas, Estelio H.M. A pratica da preparação física. 5 ed, Rio de Janeiro: Shape, 2003.
Décombaz, J.E.; Reffet, B.; Bloemhard, Y. Effect of L-carnitine and stimulated lipolysis on muscle substrates in the exercising rat. Experientia 1990; 46:457-458, 1990.
Decombaz, J.; Deriaz, O.; Acheson, K.; Gmuender, B.; Jequier, E. Effect of L-carnitine on submaximal exercise metabolism after depletion of muscle glycogen. Med Sci Sports Exerc;25:733–40, 1993.
Delvin, M.T. Text Book of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlation, ed. John Wiley & sons –1997 – 4a edição.
Dragan, GI.; Vasiliu, A.; Georgescu, E.; Dumas, I. Studies concerning chronic and acute effects of L-carnitine on some biological parameters in elite athletes. Physiologi;24:23–8, 1987.
Ellis, B.A.; Poynten, A.; Lowy, A.J.; S.M.; Kraegen, E.W.; Cooney, G.J. Long-chain acyl-CoA esters as indicators of lipids metabolism and insulin sensitivy in rat and human muscle. Am J. Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279:E554-E560, 2000.
Fritz, I.B. The effects of muscle extracts on the oxidation of palmitic acid by liver slices and homogenates. Acta Physiol Scand 34:367-385, 1995.
Gomes, MR.; Tirapegui, J. Relação de alguns suplementos nutricionais e o desempheno físico. Arch latinoam Nutri; 50: 317-329, 2000.
Guarnieri, G.; Situlin, R.; Biolo, G. Carnitine metabolism in uremia. Am J Kidney Dis.2001; 38(4 suplle 1); S63-7
Glacé, B. Carnitine as an ergogenic aid in health and disease. J. Am coll Nutr; 17:203-204, 1998.
Gorostiaga, EM.; Maurer, CA.; Eclache, JP. Decrease in respiratory quotient during exercise following L-carnitine supplementation. Int J Sports Med;10:169–74, 1989.
Greig, C.; Finch, KM.; Jones DA.; Cooper, M.; Sargeant, AJ.; Forte, CA. The effect of oral supplementation with L-carnitine on maximum and submaximum exercise capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol;56:457–60, 1987.
Hiatt, WR.; Regensteiner, JG.; Wolfel, EE.; Ruff, L.; Brass, EP. Carnitine and acylcarnitine metabolism during exercise in humans. Dependence on skeletal muscle metabolis state. J clin Invest; 84:1167-73, 1989.
Heinonen, O.J. Carnitine and physical exercisse. Sport med; 22(2): 109-32, 1996.
Hangerman, FC.; Energy metabolism and fuel utilization. Méd Sci Sports Exerc; 24:S309-14, 1992.
Hood, D.A.; Terjung, R.L. Amino acid metabolism during exercise and following endurance training. Sports Medicine, v.9, p.23-35, 1990.
____. Effect of endurance training on leucine metabolism in perfused rat skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology, v.253, p.E648-56, 1987.
Jones, NL.; Heigenhauser, GJ.; Kuksis, A.; Matsos, CG.; Sutton, JR.; Toews, CJ. Fat metabolism in heavy exercise. Clin sci; 59:469-78, 1980.
Jesus, E.V.; Silva, M. Suplemento alimentar como recurso ergogénico por praticantes de musculação em academias. Anais do II Encontro de Educação Física (NEPEF), 2008.
Lancha Jr, AH.; Recco, MB.; Abdalla, DSP.; Curi, R. Effects of aspartate, asparagine and carnitine supplementation in the diet on metabolims of skeletal muscle during a moderate exercise. Physiol Behav; 57(2):367-371, 1995.
Lagioia, R.; Scrutinio, D.; Mangini, SG.; Ricci, A.; Mastropasqua, F.; Valentini, G. et al., Propionyl-L-carnitine: a new compound in the metabolic pproach to the treatment of effort angina. Int J Cardiol; 34(2):167-72, 1992.
Lemon, P.W.R.; Proctor, D.N. Protein intake and athletic performance. Sports Medicine, v.12, p.313-25, 1991.
Marconi, C.; Sessi G.; Carpinelli, A.; Cerretelli, P. Effects of L-carnitine loading on the aerobic and anaerobic performance of endurance athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol;54:131–5, 1985.
Maughan, R.; Gleeson, M.; Greenhaff, P.L. Metabolismo de proteínas, aminoácidos y moléculas relacionadas. En: Maughan, R.; Gleeson, M. & Greenhaff, P.L., editores. Bioquímica do exercício e do treinamento. 1ª edição brasilera. São Paulo: editora Manole; 2000. p.116-139.
Monharaj, P.; Merola, A.J.; Wright, V.P. & Clanton, T.L. (1998). Antioxidants protect rat diaphragmatic muscle function under hypoxic conditions. J. Appl Physiol 84, 1960-1966,
Natali, A; Santoro, D; Brandi, LS. et al. Effects of acute hypercarnitinemia during increased fatty substrate oxidation in man. Metabolism; 42:594–600, 1993.
Newsholme, E.A.; Leech, AR. Biochemistry for the medical sciences. New York, John Willey, 1988.
Oyono-Enguelle, S.; Freund, H.; Ott, C. et al. Prolonged submaximal exercise and L-carnitine in humans. Eur J Appl Physio; 58:53–61, 1988.
Rebouche, C.J.; Seim, H. Carnitine metabolism and its regulation in microorganisms and mammals. Annu rev Nutr 18:39-61, 1998.
Redá, E.; Iddio, S.D.; Nicolai, P.; Benatti, P.; Calvani, M. The carnitine system and body composition. Acta Diabetol; 40:S106-S113, 2003.
Romijn, JÁ.; Coyle, EF.; Sidossis, LS.; Zhang, XJ.; Wolfe, RR. Relationship between fatty acid delivery and fatty acid oxidation during strenous exercise. J. Appl Physiol; 79:1939-45,1995.
Ramsay, R.P.; Arduni, A. The carnitina acyltransferases and their role in modulating acyl-CoA polls. Arch. Biochem. Biophys; 302:307-314,1993.
Reid, M.B. Redox modulation of skeletal muscle contractions: what we know and what we don’t. J Appl Physiol 90, 724-731, 2001.
Sahlin, K. Muscle carnitine metabolism during incremental dynamic exercise in humans. Acta Physiol scand; 138:259-62, 1990.
Sartori, C.; Minozzo, F.; Bargieri, J. Suplementação de aminoácidos e derivados protéicos no exercício. Centros de estudos de fisiologia do exercício, 2007.
Siliprandi, N.; Di Lisa, F.; Pieralisi, G. et al. Metabolic changes induced by maximal exercise in human subjects following L-carnitine administration. Biochim Biophys Acta; 1034:17–21, 1990.
Simoneau, J.A.; Veerkamp, J.H.; Turcotte, L.P.; Kelley, D.E. Markers of capacity to utilize fatty acids in human skeletal muscle: relation to insulin resistance and obesity and effects of weight loss. FASEB J 13:2051-2060, 1999.
Soop, M.; Bjorkman, O.; Cederblad, G.; Hagenfeldt, L.; Wahren J. Influence of carnitine supplementation on muscle substrate and carnitine metabolism during exercise. J Appl Physiol; 64:2394–9, 1988.
Spagnoli, L.G.; Palmieri, G.; Mauriello, A.; Vacha, GM.; Diddio, S.; Giorcelli, G. et al. Morphometric evidence of the trophic effect of L-carnitine on human skeletal muscle. Nephron; 55(1):16-23, 1990.
Trappe, SW.; Costill, DL.; Goodpaster, B.; Vukovich, MD.; Fink, WJ. The effects of Lcarnitine supplementation on performance during interval swimming. Int J Sports Med; 15:181–5, 1994.
Vecchiet, L.; Di Lisa, F.; Pieralisi, G. et al. Influence of L-carnitine administration on maximal physical exercise. Eur J Appl Physio; 61:486–90, 1990.
Volek, J.S.; Kraemer, W.J.; Rubin, M.R.; Gómez, A.L.; Ratamess, N.A.; Gaynor, P. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282:E474, 2002.
Vukovich, MD.; Costill, DL.; Fink, WJ. Carnitine supplementation: effect on muscle carnitine and glycogen content during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc; 26:1122–9, 1994.
Wasserman, K.; Whipp, B.J. Exercise physiology in health and disease. Am rev Respir Dis;112:219-49, 1975.
Westerbland, H. & Allen, D.G. (2000). Cellular mechanics of skeletal muscle fatigue. Adv Exp Med Biol 538, 563-570.
Wright, V.P.; Klawitter, P.F.; Iscru, D.F.; Merola, A.J. & Clanton, T.L. Superoxide scavengers augment contractile but not energetic responses to hypoxia in rat diaphragm. J Appl Physiol 98, 1753-1760, 2005.
Wyss, V.; Ganzit, GP.; Rienzi, A. Effects of Lcarnitine administration on VO2max and the aerobic-anaerobic threshold in normoxia and acute hypoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol;60:1–6,1990.
